Please watch the video I created that outlines the concepts of memory formation and retrieval based on the principles of learner-centered teaching outlined by Terry Doyle (2011).
- Hello, I’m Stephanie Triplett and I’m a Clinical Instructor of Nursing at Wright State University in Dayton, Ohio. One of my most frustrating experiences as a nursing instructor is dealing with the "learn and dump" strategy that so many of our students seem to use. This strategy involves learning content for the test, but then not being able to apply it a clinical setting or build upon it in future courses. Using Terry Doyle’s (2011), book Learner-Centered Teaching, I will discuss how problems with information recall by students is related to how the information was committed to memory and what the students did (or did not) do with the information after the initial learning experience.
- As teachers, we want our students to be able to recall the information we teach them. But unfortunately, not all our students are able to do that – they forget the information. Forgetting is defined as either the failure to store or to retrieve a memory. Let’s look first at how memories are created and stored.
- The theory of neuroplasticity explains how learning experiences cause the brain to physically change through the creation of new neurons and neural networks (Goldberg, 2009; Ratey, 2001). And the brain is very efficient -- any neurons storing unused information are "recycled" to provide raw material for the new knowledge – meaning that we have to practice and review knowledge to keep it in our brains (Doyle, 2011).
- While we don't understand the exact neurochemical processes in memory formation, there have been some important research discoveries that give us general ideas about how memories are made, stored, and retrieved that may assist educators (Doyle, 2011). In order for the neural networks to change, the learner must actively process sensory input through a process called encoding (Mohs, 2010). Working together, the hippocampus and frontal cortex decide what information is worth keeping and encode that information into memories (Mohs, 2010). So, that's why just putting a book under your pillow doesn't work!
- One of the important factors influencing encoding is whether or not we were paying attention to the sensory information at the time it’s encoded (Duclukovic & Wagner, 2006). Information that we don’t notice is filtered out of our conscious awareness and is not retained. In other words, you can’t remember what you didn't notice. Teaching strategies that monitor and increase student engagement will improve memory creation (Doyle, 2011).
- Another important factor influencing encoding is stress, which disrupts our brains ability to make and store memories in neural networks (Baram, Chen, Dube', & Rice, 2008). The release of stress hormones is controlled by corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) from the hippocampus, which compromises it’s participation in sensory processing and memory formation (Baram, Chen, Dube’, & Rice, 2008). Learning environments that reduce stress will improve memory creation (Doyle, 2011).
- New memories are stored in neural networks that are solidified while we sleep. This means that failure to get a good night's sleep of at least 7-8 hours prevents the brain from consolidating new memories of the day into more permanent storage areas (Walker, 2009). Taking a nap after learning a new task has shown increased memory recall of the task as well as improved overall cognitive functioning (Walker, 2009). Teaching students about the influence of sleep on memory may help improve their learning (Doyle, 2011).
- Memory formation is also affected by emotions. Memories associated with arousing emotional stimuli (joy, anger, fear) tend to be stored faster and be retrieved more quickly than memories associated with neutral stimuli (LaBar & Phelps, 1998). What is interesting is that both positive and negative emotions have similar effects on memory creation (Ochsner, 2000). In other words, it doesn’t matter if the emotion is joy or fear, it just matters that the emotion is strong. Teaching strategies that connect learning to emotional experiences, either current or past, may help students store memories more strongly (Doyle, 2011).
- We’ve talked about how the creation and storage of memories is important to learning. The ability to recall and use those memories is also important to learning. Let’s now look at what affects students’ ability to recall what they have learned.
- The primary cause of a storage failure, also known as encoding failure, is not paying sufficient attention at the time the memory was formed (Rinck, 1999). This makes sense, because a memory must be created before it can be recalled. Now let’s turn our attention to three reasons why a created memory cannot be recalled.
- Transience is the phenomenon of memories fading over time. (Staresina & Davachi, 2009). This fading occurs at different rates as we age and among different individuals – memories that aren't used tend to fade faster than those "exercised" regularly (Staresina & Davachi, 2009). Teaching strategies that require students to use prior learning to solve new problems will improve the recall of the prior learning (Doyle, 2011).
- Interference is the phenomenon of memories that are similar to each other competing with and interfering with one another (Underwood & Postman, 1960). Proactive interference happens when the strength of an old memory keeps you from making a new one. Retroactive interference happens when the strength of a new memory keeps you from retrieving an old one. Students will intentionally forget information that they find in conflict through the process called misattribution (Staresina & Davachi, 2009). This means that it is critical that we provide students with consistency in format and content throughout the curriculum.
- In addition to transience and interference, blocking can result in failure to retrieve a memory (Schacter, 2001). Blocking keeps the brain from accessing a stored memory and is usually associated with test anxiety (Cassady & Johnson, 2002). Helping students to recognize and manage test anxiety may help them to improve their academic performance (Doyle, 2011).
- So how can we as educators help our students learn in a way that they can use that information in the future. The principles of learner-centered teaching tell us that students have to actively work with content to learn in a meaningful way. Let’s now look at three strategies that involve students more with their own learning.
- Teaching for long-term recall involves more than "covering" content in a lecture. The goal of learner-centered teaching is to transfer content to students in a way that it can both be used immediately and recalled months or years later (Doyle, 2011). Repetition of key content over the semester is the best way to improve retention (Doyle, 2011). Spacing out studying or reviewing also improves recall. The optimal time interval between study sessions is about 10-20% of the time between the initial learning and the test (Pashler, Rohrer, Cepeda, & Carpenter, 2007). This research confirms what most of us already know: cramming doesn't result in long-term recall.
- Elaboration is a conscious strategy that can be used to strengthen the encoding process, in which personal values or meanings are attached to the new memory (Kensinger, 2004). Reflection is a form of elaboration that asks students to deliberately connect what they are learning with solving other problems, improving their own lives, or helping others (Doyle, 2011). Reflection can be scheduled during class time or it can be recorded in journal entries outside of class. Besides elaborating memories during encoding, reflection can also assist students to understand the material more deeply since it forces them to explain what they have learned in their own words (Ratey, 2001).
- In conclusion, the principles discussed in Learner-Centered Teaching (Doyle, 2011) tells us that our nursing students are employing "learn and dump" as a survival strategy to help them cope with the large volume of information that we throw at them. It may also be that there is conflicting information presented in different classes causing interference with memory formation and retrieval. As a faculty, we can come together to develop and implement solutions to improve the teaching-learning environment for our students. We need to streamline the curriculum content, primarily through elimination of duplicate information. We need to identify key concepts and "weave" them throughout the curriculum so that they reinforce learning through repetition. We need to hold our students accountable for long-term memory formation through intentional and substantive reflection. Our academic freedom to choose our teaching strategies brings with it a great responsibility to our students to teach them competently and effectively.