Chapter 10:
Repetition and Elaboration
Repetition and Elaboration
How Memory Works
Since we want students to remember what we teach them, this doesn't happen consistently. While we don't understand the exact neurochemical processes in memory formation, there have been some important research discoveries that give us general ideas about how memories are made, stored, and retrieved that may assist educators.
Memories are created through the encoding process in the brain. Working together, the hippocampus and frontal cortex decide what information is worth keeping and encode that information into memories (Mohs, 2010). One of the important factors influencing encoding is whether or not we were paying attention to the sensory information (Duclukovic & Wagner, 2006). In other words, you can remember what you didn't notice. Another important factor influencing encoding is stress, which disrupts our brains ability to make and store memories in neural networks (Baram, Chen, Dube', & Rice, 2008).
New memories are stored in neural networks that are solidified while we sleep. This means that failure to get a good night's sleep of at least 7-8 hours prevents the brain from consolidating new memories of the day into more permanent storage areas (Walker, 2009). Taking a nap after learning a new task has shown increased memory recall of the task as well as improved overall cognitive functioning (Walker, 2009).
Memory formation is also affected by emotions. Memories associated with arousing emotional stimuli (joy, anger, fear) tend to be stored faster and be retrieved more quickly than memories associated with neutral stimuli (LaBar & Phelps, 1998). What is interesting is that both positive and negative emotions have similar effects on memory.
Since we want students to remember what we teach them, this doesn't happen consistently. While we don't understand the exact neurochemical processes in memory formation, there have been some important research discoveries that give us general ideas about how memories are made, stored, and retrieved that may assist educators.
Memories are created through the encoding process in the brain. Working together, the hippocampus and frontal cortex decide what information is worth keeping and encode that information into memories (Mohs, 2010). One of the important factors influencing encoding is whether or not we were paying attention to the sensory information (Duclukovic & Wagner, 2006). In other words, you can remember what you didn't notice. Another important factor influencing encoding is stress, which disrupts our brains ability to make and store memories in neural networks (Baram, Chen, Dube', & Rice, 2008).
New memories are stored in neural networks that are solidified while we sleep. This means that failure to get a good night's sleep of at least 7-8 hours prevents the brain from consolidating new memories of the day into more permanent storage areas (Walker, 2009). Taking a nap after learning a new task has shown increased memory recall of the task as well as improved overall cognitive functioning (Walker, 2009).
Memory formation is also affected by emotions. Memories associated with arousing emotional stimuli (joy, anger, fear) tend to be stored faster and be retrieved more quickly than memories associated with neutral stimuli (LaBar & Phelps, 1998). What is interesting is that both positive and negative emotions have similar effects on memory.
Why Do We Forget?
There are four major reasons we forget (Cherry, 2010):
Retrieval failure: Decay theory explains that the brain cannot retrieve a memory that is no longer there (McKone, 1998). According to this theory, memories fade over time. This fading occurs at different rates as we age and among different individuals. In particular, memories that aren't used tend to fade faster than those "exercised" regularly.
Interference: Memories that are similar to each other can compete with and interfere with other (Underwood & Postman, 1960). Proactive interference happens when the strength of an old memory keeps you from making a new one. Retroactive interference happens when the strength of a new memory keeps you from retrieving an old one.
Failure to store: The primary cause of a storage failure, also known as encoding failure, is not paying sufficient attention at the time the memory was formed (Rinck, 1999). As mentioned earlier, lack of sleep can also interfere with long-term memory storage.
Motivated forgetting: While active memory removal may be conscious or unconscious, there are three basic reasons why we forget things on purpose (Schacter, 2001): blocking, misattribution, and transience. Blocking keeps the brain from accessing a stored memory and is usually associated with test anxiety. Misattribution occurs when memories are confused with one another through the process of interference. Transience is the phenomena where memory is lost over time. Being able to take a break or daydream between learning experiences significantly improves recall of what was learned (Staresina & Davachi, 2009).
There are four major reasons we forget (Cherry, 2010):
Retrieval failure: Decay theory explains that the brain cannot retrieve a memory that is no longer there (McKone, 1998). According to this theory, memories fade over time. This fading occurs at different rates as we age and among different individuals. In particular, memories that aren't used tend to fade faster than those "exercised" regularly.
Interference: Memories that are similar to each other can compete with and interfere with other (Underwood & Postman, 1960). Proactive interference happens when the strength of an old memory keeps you from making a new one. Retroactive interference happens when the strength of a new memory keeps you from retrieving an old one.
Failure to store: The primary cause of a storage failure, also known as encoding failure, is not paying sufficient attention at the time the memory was formed (Rinck, 1999). As mentioned earlier, lack of sleep can also interfere with long-term memory storage.
Motivated forgetting: While active memory removal may be conscious or unconscious, there are three basic reasons why we forget things on purpose (Schacter, 2001): blocking, misattribution, and transience. Blocking keeps the brain from accessing a stored memory and is usually associated with test anxiety. Misattribution occurs when memories are confused with one another through the process of interference. Transience is the phenomena where memory is lost over time. Being able to take a break or daydream between learning experiences significantly improves recall of what was learned (Staresina & Davachi, 2009).
Repetition is the Key to Memory
Teaching for long-term recall involves more than "covering" content in a lecture. The goal of learner-centered teaching is to transfer content to students in a way that it can both be used immediately and recalled months or years later (Doyle, 2011).
Spacing out studying or reviewing improves recall. The optimal time interval between study sessions is about 10-20% of the time between the initial learning and the test (Pashler, Rohrer, Cepeda, & Carpenter, 2007). This research confirms what most of us already know: cramming doesn't result in long-term recall.
One of the best strategies to promote long-term recall of key content is cumulative testing. By selecting a handful of the most important elements and repeating it throughout the course, students form stronger memories that last and that allow them to make new connections later (Doyle, 2011). These connections are especially important because they allow students to create a complete pattern of understanding (Doyle, 2011).
There are conscious strategies that can be used to strengthen the encoding process. One of these is elaboration, in which personal values or meanings are attached to the new memory (Kensinger, 2004). Reflection is a form of elaboration that asks students to deliberately connect what they are learning with solving other problems, improving their own lives, or helping others (Doyle, 2011). Reflection can be scheduled during class time or it can be recorded in journal entries outside of class. Besides elaborating memories during encoding, reflection can also assist students to understand the material more deeply since it forces them to explain what they have learned in their own words (Ratey, 2001).
Teaching for long-term recall involves more than "covering" content in a lecture. The goal of learner-centered teaching is to transfer content to students in a way that it can both be used immediately and recalled months or years later (Doyle, 2011).
Spacing out studying or reviewing improves recall. The optimal time interval between study sessions is about 10-20% of the time between the initial learning and the test (Pashler, Rohrer, Cepeda, & Carpenter, 2007). This research confirms what most of us already know: cramming doesn't result in long-term recall.
One of the best strategies to promote long-term recall of key content is cumulative testing. By selecting a handful of the most important elements and repeating it throughout the course, students form stronger memories that last and that allow them to make new connections later (Doyle, 2011). These connections are especially important because they allow students to create a complete pattern of understanding (Doyle, 2011).
There are conscious strategies that can be used to strengthen the encoding process. One of these is elaboration, in which personal values or meanings are attached to the new memory (Kensinger, 2004). Reflection is a form of elaboration that asks students to deliberately connect what they are learning with solving other problems, improving their own lives, or helping others (Doyle, 2011). Reflection can be scheduled during class time or it can be recorded in journal entries outside of class. Besides elaborating memories during encoding, reflection can also assist students to understand the material more deeply since it forces them to explain what they have learned in their own words (Ratey, 2001).
SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Helping Students Improve Their Memories
The learner-centered teaching approach requires that we teach students how to do more of their own work. Here are 10 suggestions (Doyle, 2011) that you can give your students on how to do that.
The learner-centered teaching approach requires that we teach students how to do more of their own work. Here are 10 suggestions (Doyle, 2011) that you can give your students on how to do that.
- Focus your attention on the materials you are studying.
- Don't cram for exams.
- Structure and organize the information.
- Mnemonic devices can help.
- Elaborate and rehearse information. (Effective strategies include reflection, mapping, annotating, and paraphrasing.)
- Relate new information to prior knowledge.
- Visualize concepts.
- Teach new concepts to another person.
- Pay extra attention to information in the middle of class. (Primacy and recency effects make it easier to remember information from the beginning and end of class.)
- Vary your study routine (location, time, etc). Novelty improves memory formation and recall.
PERSONAL AND/OR PROFESSIONAL CONNECTIONS
One of my most frustrating experiences as a nursing instructor is dealing with the "learn and dump" strategy that so many of our students seem to use. My colleagues are just as frustrated. We have had many discussions about the source of this phenomenon in faculty meetings -- sometimes with some finger-pointing and raised voices.
I've come to the conclusion after reading Doyle's book that our students are employing "learn and dump" as a survival strategy to help them cope with the large volume of information that we throw at them. One student once told me that taking a particular professor's class was like "trying to drink out of a fire hose blasting you full in the face." In other words, too much information too fast doesn't promote learning. I've also noticed that there is conflicting information presented in different classes that may be causing interference with memory formation and retrieval.
So I think we're going to have to keep those fingers pointed and voices raised, although in as professional a way as possible, to fix this problem. We need to streamline the content, primarily through elimination of duplicate information. We also need to identify key concepts and "weave" them throughout the curriculum so that they reinforce learning through repetition. We also need to hold our students accountable for long-term memory formation through intentional and substantive reflection. Our academic freedom to choose our teaching strategies brings with it a great responsibility to our students to teach them competently and effectively.
I've come to the conclusion after reading Doyle's book that our students are employing "learn and dump" as a survival strategy to help them cope with the large volume of information that we throw at them. One student once told me that taking a particular professor's class was like "trying to drink out of a fire hose blasting you full in the face." In other words, too much information too fast doesn't promote learning. I've also noticed that there is conflicting information presented in different classes that may be causing interference with memory formation and retrieval.
So I think we're going to have to keep those fingers pointed and voices raised, although in as professional a way as possible, to fix this problem. We need to streamline the content, primarily through elimination of duplicate information. We also need to identify key concepts and "weave" them throughout the curriculum so that they reinforce learning through repetition. We also need to hold our students accountable for long-term memory formation through intentional and substantive reflection. Our academic freedom to choose our teaching strategies brings with it a great responsibility to our students to teach them competently and effectively.
Video Presentation
Please watch the video I created that outlines the concepts of memory formation and retrieval based on the principles of learner-centered teaching outlined by Terry Doyle (2011).
TRANSCRIPT
- Hello, I’m Stephanie Triplett and I’m a Clinical Instructor of Nursing at Wright State University in Dayton, Ohio. One of my most frustrating experiences as a nursing instructor is dealing with the "learn and dump" strategy that so many of our students seem to use. This strategy involves learning content for the test, but then not being able to apply it a clinical setting or build upon it in future courses. Using Terry Doyle’s (2011), book Learner-Centered Teaching, I will discuss how problems with information recall by students is related to how the information was committed to memory and what the students did (or did not) do with the information after the initial learning experience.
- As teachers, we want our students to be able to recall the information we teach them. But unfortunately, not all our students are able to do that – they forget the information. Forgetting is defined as either the failure to store or to retrieve a memory. Let’s look first at how memories are created and stored.
- The theory of neuroplasticity explains how learning experiences cause the brain to physically change through the creation of new neurons and neural networks (Goldberg, 2009; Ratey, 2001). And the brain is very efficient -- any neurons storing unused information are "recycled" to provide raw material for the new knowledge – meaning that we have to practice and review knowledge to keep it in our brains (Doyle, 2011).
- While we don't understand the exact neurochemical processes in memory formation, there have been some important research discoveries that give us general ideas about how memories are made, stored, and retrieved that may assist educators (Doyle, 2011). In order for the neural networks to change, the learner must actively process sensory input through a process called encoding (Mohs, 2010). Working together, the hippocampus and frontal cortex decide what information is worth keeping and encode that information into memories (Mohs, 2010). So, that's why just putting a book under your pillow doesn't work!
- One of the important factors influencing encoding is whether or not we were paying attention to the sensory information at the time it’s encoded (Duclukovic & Wagner, 2006). Information that we don’t notice is filtered out of our conscious awareness and is not retained. In other words, you can’t remember what you didn't notice. Teaching strategies that monitor and increase student engagement will improve memory creation (Doyle, 2011).
- Another important factor influencing encoding is stress, which disrupts our brains ability to make and store memories in neural networks (Baram, Chen, Dube', & Rice, 2008). The release of stress hormones is controlled by corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) from the hippocampus, which compromises it’s participation in sensory processing and memory formation (Baram, Chen, Dube’, & Rice, 2008). Learning environments that reduce stress will improve memory creation (Doyle, 2011).
- New memories are stored in neural networks that are solidified while we sleep. This means that failure to get a good night's sleep of at least 7-8 hours prevents the brain from consolidating new memories of the day into more permanent storage areas (Walker, 2009). Taking a nap after learning a new task has shown increased memory recall of the task as well as improved overall cognitive functioning (Walker, 2009). Teaching students about the influence of sleep on memory may help improve their learning (Doyle, 2011).
- Memory formation is also affected by emotions. Memories associated with arousing emotional stimuli (joy, anger, fear) tend to be stored faster and be retrieved more quickly than memories associated with neutral stimuli (LaBar & Phelps, 1998). What is interesting is that both positive and negative emotions have similar effects on memory creation (Ochsner, 2000). In other words, it doesn’t matter if the emotion is joy or fear, it just matters that the emotion is strong. Teaching strategies that connect learning to emotional experiences, either current or past, may help students store memories more strongly (Doyle, 2011).
- We’ve talked about how the creation and storage of memories is important to learning. The ability to recall and use those memories is also important to learning. Let’s now look at what affects students’ ability to recall what they have learned.
- The primary cause of a storage failure, also known as encoding failure, is not paying sufficient attention at the time the memory was formed (Rinck, 1999). This makes sense, because a memory must be created before it can be recalled. Now let’s turn our attention to three reasons why a created memory cannot be recalled.
- Transience is the phenomenon of memories fading over time. (Staresina & Davachi, 2009). This fading occurs at different rates as we age and among different individuals – memories that aren't used tend to fade faster than those "exercised" regularly (Staresina & Davachi, 2009). Teaching strategies that require students to use prior learning to solve new problems will improve the recall of the prior learning (Doyle, 2011).
- Interference is the phenomenon of memories that are similar to each other competing with and interfering with one another (Underwood & Postman, 1960). Proactive interference happens when the strength of an old memory keeps you from making a new one. Retroactive interference happens when the strength of a new memory keeps you from retrieving an old one. Students will intentionally forget information that they find in conflict through the process called misattribution (Staresina & Davachi, 2009). This means that it is critical that we provide students with consistency in format and content throughout the curriculum.
- In addition to transience and interference, blocking can result in failure to retrieve a memory (Schacter, 2001). Blocking keeps the brain from accessing a stored memory and is usually associated with test anxiety (Cassady & Johnson, 2002). Helping students to recognize and manage test anxiety may help them to improve their academic performance (Doyle, 2011).
- So how can we as educators help our students learn in a way that they can use that information in the future. The principles of learner-centered teaching tell us that students have to actively work with content to learn in a meaningful way. Let’s now look at three strategies that involve students more with their own learning.
- Teaching for long-term recall involves more than "covering" content in a lecture. The goal of learner-centered teaching is to transfer content to students in a way that it can both be used immediately and recalled months or years later (Doyle, 2011). Repetition of key content over the semester is the best way to improve retention (Doyle, 2011). Spacing out studying or reviewing also improves recall. The optimal time interval between study sessions is about 10-20% of the time between the initial learning and the test (Pashler, Rohrer, Cepeda, & Carpenter, 2007). This research confirms what most of us already know: cramming doesn't result in long-term recall.
- Elaboration is a conscious strategy that can be used to strengthen the encoding process, in which personal values or meanings are attached to the new memory (Kensinger, 2004). Reflection is a form of elaboration that asks students to deliberately connect what they are learning with solving other problems, improving their own lives, or helping others (Doyle, 2011). Reflection can be scheduled during class time or it can be recorded in journal entries outside of class. Besides elaborating memories during encoding, reflection can also assist students to understand the material more deeply since it forces them to explain what they have learned in their own words (Ratey, 2001).
- In conclusion, the principles discussed in Learner-Centered Teaching (Doyle, 2011) tells us that our nursing students are employing "learn and dump" as a survival strategy to help them cope with the large volume of information that we throw at them. It may also be that there is conflicting information presented in different classes causing interference with memory formation and retrieval. As a faculty, we can come together to develop and implement solutions to improve the teaching-learning environment for our students. We need to streamline the curriculum content, primarily through elimination of duplicate information. We need to identify key concepts and "weave" them throughout the curriculum so that they reinforce learning through repetition. We need to hold our students accountable for long-term memory formation through intentional and substantive reflection. Our academic freedom to choose our teaching strategies brings with it a great responsibility to our students to teach them competently and effectively.
RESOURCES
Baram, T.Z., Chen, Y., Dube´ ,C.M., & Rice, C.J. (2008). Rapid loss of dendritic spines after stress involves derangement of spine dynamics by corticotropin releasing hormone. Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 2903–2911.
Cherry, K. (2010). Explanations for forgetting. Retrieved June 8, 2011, from http:// psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/tp/explanations-for-forgetting .htm
Doyle, T. (2011). Learner-centered teaching: Putting the research on learning into practice. Sterling, Virginia: Stylus.
Duclukovic, N. M., & Wagner, A. D. (2006). Attending to remember and remembering to attend. Neuron, 49, 784–787.
Kensinger, E.A. (2004). Remembering emotional experiences: The contribution of valence and arousal. Review in the Neurosciences, 15, 241-251.
La Bar, K.S., & Phelps, E.A. (1998). Arousal-mediated memory consolidation: Role of the medial temporal lobe in humans. Psychological Science, 9, 490–493.
McKone, E. (1998). The decay of short-term implicit memory: Unpacking lag. Memory and Cognition, 26(6), 1173–1186.
Mohs, R. C. (2010). How human memory works. Retrieved January 11, 2011, from http://health.howstuffworks.com/human-body/systems/nervous-system/humanmemory4.htm
Pashler, H., Rohrer, D., Cepeda, N.J., & Carpenter, S.K. (2007). Enhancing learning and retarding forgetting: Choices and consequences. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 14, 187-193.
Ratey, J. (2001). A user's guide to the brain. New York: Pantheon Books.
Rinck, M. (1999). Memory for everyday objects: Where are the digits on numerical keypads? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 13(4), 329-350.
Schacter, D. (2001). The seven sins of memory: How the mind forgets and remembers. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Staresina, B.P., & Davachi, L. (2009). Mind the gap: Binding experiences across space and time in the human hippocampus. Neuron, 63(2), 267-276.
Underwood, B.J., & Postman, L. (1960). Extra-experimental sources of interference in forgetting. Psychological Review, 67, 73-95.
Walker, M.P. (2009). The role of slow wave sleep in memory processing. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 5, S20–S26.
Cherry, K. (2010). Explanations for forgetting. Retrieved June 8, 2011, from http:// psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/tp/explanations-for-forgetting .htm
Doyle, T. (2011). Learner-centered teaching: Putting the research on learning into practice. Sterling, Virginia: Stylus.
Duclukovic, N. M., & Wagner, A. D. (2006). Attending to remember and remembering to attend. Neuron, 49, 784–787.
Kensinger, E.A. (2004). Remembering emotional experiences: The contribution of valence and arousal. Review in the Neurosciences, 15, 241-251.
La Bar, K.S., & Phelps, E.A. (1998). Arousal-mediated memory consolidation: Role of the medial temporal lobe in humans. Psychological Science, 9, 490–493.
McKone, E. (1998). The decay of short-term implicit memory: Unpacking lag. Memory and Cognition, 26(6), 1173–1186.
Mohs, R. C. (2010). How human memory works. Retrieved January 11, 2011, from http://health.howstuffworks.com/human-body/systems/nervous-system/humanmemory4.htm
Pashler, H., Rohrer, D., Cepeda, N.J., & Carpenter, S.K. (2007). Enhancing learning and retarding forgetting: Choices and consequences. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 14, 187-193.
Ratey, J. (2001). A user's guide to the brain. New York: Pantheon Books.
Rinck, M. (1999). Memory for everyday objects: Where are the digits on numerical keypads? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 13(4), 329-350.
Schacter, D. (2001). The seven sins of memory: How the mind forgets and remembers. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Staresina, B.P., & Davachi, L. (2009). Mind the gap: Binding experiences across space and time in the human hippocampus. Neuron, 63(2), 267-276.
Underwood, B.J., & Postman, L. (1960). Extra-experimental sources of interference in forgetting. Psychological Review, 67, 73-95.
Walker, M.P. (2009). The role of slow wave sleep in memory processing. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 5, S20–S26.